Interview with Jean Bahr: Education in Hydrogeology

Jean Bahr grew up in California and traveled extensively as a child. She became interested in environmental issues after attending a fair for the first Earth Day while still in high school. As an undergraduate at Yale University, Jean studied Geology, because she liked its mix of environmental science courses, small class sizes and abundant weekend field trips.

After graduation, she took a job with a geotechnical firm and started working on hydrogeology projects. While working in Mali (in western Africa) for two years, Jean realized that hydrogeology was her passion. Upon returning to the U.S., she applied to Stanford University and went on to earn her Master's and Doctorate degrees.

Today Dr. Bahr teaches at the University of Wisconsin - Madison. She enjoys her many opportunities to teach others, to conduct research, and to connect with the broader scientific community.

About Dr. Bahr & Her Career

Please tell us about your career. How did you decide to become involved in geology and in hydrogeology in particular?

I've been interested in the science of the natural world for as long as I can remember. Camping trips to places of geologic interest (and scenic beauty) such as Yosemite and Yellowstone are some highlights I remember from childhood vacations. My father, an electrical engineer, encouraged my early interest in astronomy with visits to the local planetarium and to the Lick Observatory. He and my mother both supported my interests and talents in math. No one at home ever told me "Math is hard", so I never thought it was supposed to be.

I was a high school student taking biology (with a healthy dose of ecology) when the first Earth Day was held in 1970. With many of my classmates, I attended the fair at nearby Stanford University and was profoundly moved by what I learned about the impacts humans were having on our planet. I got involved in the high school "ecology club", helped launch a recycling center that was taken over by the city a few years later, and began to consider options for a career combining my love of science with concerns about environmental problems. As a freshman at Yale University in 1972, I planned to pursue a degree in Combined Sciences, which seemed to offer the flexibility to tailor my courses to fit my environmental interests. By my second year, however, the University had decided to phase out that interdisciplinary program and I was told I needed to select a major from one of the traditional science departments. I had taken courses in chemistry, biology, physics and geology by that time, and concluded that the geology major was the best fit because it had several courses with environmental themes and, unlike chemistry or biology, the classes were relatively small and they were not filled with pre-meds. I soon discovered the added bonus of weekend field trips, and from that point I was hooked on geology.

My introduction to hydrogeology as a specialization came not from my college courses, but rather from the job I took after graduation. A geotechnical firm in California offered me a job that initially focused on evaluating earthquake hazards. This seemed like a good opportunity to put my geologic training into practice, so I gladly accepted. In addition to working on landslide and earthquake hazard studies, I was also assigned to several projects led by the firm's hydrogeologist on studies related to mine drainage and mine waste disposal. In my second year with the firm, the hydrogeologist landed a project for a groundwater resources inventory in West Africa. I was tapped to be one of the junior staff on that project and spent the next two years in the country of Mali compiling existing data, collecting water samples from wells, and constructing hydrogeologic maps.

It was during my time in Mali that I concluded that hydrogeology provided me with a satisfying combination of geologic science and the potential to address important environmental and human resource problems. I also recognized that I needed formal training in hydrogeology in order to practice at a professional level, so I applied to graduate school at Stanford and started there the fall of 1980 after my return from Mali. My graduate studies began at the time that groundwater contamination from sites like Love Canal was becoming a major focus of research in the U.S. While I have maintained the interest in third world water resources issues that initially prompted by return to the university, much of my research career has been devoted to first world problems of groundwater contamination.

What do you enjoy most about your job?

My job as a professor involves three major classes of activities: research, teaching, and "service." I find enjoyment in each of these. The best part of research is the excitement of learning something new, even if that discovery means that my initial hypothesis was wrong. In teaching, I enjoy interacting with students in the classroom, in the field trips, and on research projects. Positive feedback from students is perhaps the most tangible reward of an academic job. Many of my "service" activities have involved review panels focusing on questions of national or international interest such as radioactive waste disposal or restoration of the Everglades. I enjoy those opportunities to learn about a new topic and to interact with interesting people from a variety of institutions and fields.

You have been all over the world. How have your travel experiences influenced your passion for geology and/or for teaching and research?

I was fortunate to have opportunities to travel and live in Europe and the Pacific as a child, and those early experiences probably turned me into the travel addict that I remain today. Once I had begun to study geology, I found that travel was even more exciting because I then had the tools to decipher some of earth's complex history from landscapes and rock outcrops everywhere I went. Although most of my field research is focused on sites near my base in Wisconsin, I enjoy sharing pictures and rock samples I've collected around the world with my classes.

You are a member of several professional societies, including Sigma Xi, the Association of Women Geoscientists, and the Geological Society of America, to name a few. How do these associations help their members, professionally?

I belong to a number of professional societies that contribute in diverse ways to my professional and personal goals. The Geological Society of America, the National Ground Water Association and the American Geophysical Union all publish technical journals that allow me to keep abreast of current research in my field. Sigma Xi's American Scientist offers entertaining articles of broad scientific interest - a good thing to read on a long plane trip or with a Saturday morning cup of coffee. The Association of Women Geoscientists newsletter includes timely commentaries on issues facing women professionals in general and women geoscientists in particular.

Professional society meetings offer opportunities to present results of my research and to hear about research of others that is not yet in press. They also provide great way to network with new colleagues and visit with old friends. Many professional societies are dedicated to nurturing the next generation of scientists and they particularly encourage participation of students and help to connect them with senior professionals. Finally, many professional societies have staff and programs that help to educate the public and policy makers about important science related issues such as global environmental change and the need for increased science literacy.

In 2003, you served as the Geological Society of America's Birdsall-Dreiss Distinguished Lecturer - please tell us about that experience, and how you got picked for the position.

The Birdsall-Dreiss Lectureship was set up by the Hydrogeology Division of GSA in 1978 to highlight exciting research and to encourage students to consider hydrogeology as a field of study. A single lecturer is chosen each year following nomination by a committee of former lecturers. Criteria for nomination include a record of scientific accomplishments, talents as a speaker, and the ability to serve as an "ambassador" for the profession. I was very surprised and honored when I was asked to serve as the 2003 lecturer. Fortunately, I had already arranged a sabbatical leave for part of that year, which provided the necessary flexibility to accommodate visits to a large number of institutions. I received over 60 invitations and was able to honor almost all of them, even on a fairly limited budget, by scheduling several month-long driving tours: one that took me south with a stop in Louisiana during Mardi Gras, another to the northeast and then south to Virginia in time for spring flowers, and a third to New England during the peak of fall colors. I also took several shorter trips to the West Coast, Texas, and through the Midwest. At each stop, I gave one or two lectures and spent at least a day visiting with students and faculty to learn about their research. I also ate many wonderful meals, saw local sites of geologic and cultural interest, and had the chance to see old friends and make many new ones.

About Hydrogeology

Your specialty in geology is hydrogeology - can you tell us a bit about what hydrogeologists do?

Hydrogeologists study groundwater, the water that is held in pores of rocks and sediment beneath the land surface. "Water supply" hydrogeology focuses on quantifying this type of water resource by identifying the locations and properties of "aquifers," the geologic materials that store water. This requires a synthesis of geologic information, such as that found on geologic maps, and testing of wells to determine rates of groundwater flow. Determining directions of groundwater flow, both under natural conditions and in the presence of pumping wells, is important to siting of new wells to meet increasing human demands and to managing groundwater resources to avoid adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems such as wetlands and streams, which depend on groundwater for part of their water budget. In the last few decades, hydrogeologists have made increasing use of computer models to address these management questions.

Hydrogeologists also study the chemical characteristics of groundwater since those characteristics affect the suitability of water for human consumption and other uses. Much recent research and applications in hydrogeology have centered on the fate and transport of contaminants in groundwater, including naturally occurring substances such as arsenic and those introduced by human activities such as leaking gasoline tanks or spills of organic solvents. Like "water supply" hydrogeology, the practice of "contaminant" hydrogeology involves a combination of field measurements, well testing (in this case for chemical rather than physical properties of aquifers), and modeling.

Why is hydrogeology important to society?

Hydrogeologic expertise is essential to addressing pressing societal needs for clean water. Groundwater accounts for almost half of the water used for domestic supply in the U.S. As discussed in a recent USGS [U.S. Geological Survey] fact sheet, groundwater pumping in many parts of the country exceeds the rate at which water is being replenished to aquifers from infiltration of rainfall. Groundwater depletion causes a variety of problems, ranging from lowered water levels in the High Plains, to land subsidence in California's Central Valley, to saltwater intrusion in aquifers along the east and west coasts. Contamination of aquifers is also a nationwide problem.

Are there any subfields or specialties within hydrogeology?

Perhaps the clearest distinction is between "physical hydrogeology" as it relates to water supply problems and "chemical hydrogeology" or "contaminant hydrogeology" as it relates to water quality. However, most practicing hydrogeologists use tools and approaches that require a good understanding of both physical and chemical principles. Another distinction is between hydrogeologists who participate in field measurement and testing and those who emphasize the development and application of numerical models of flow and contaminant transport.

What is the difference between "hydrogeology" and "hydrology"?

Hydrogeology refers to the study of water beneath the land surface and generally focuses on water in the zone below the "water table" where pores are entirely filled with water (as distinct from water in the "unsaturated" or vadose zone above the water table where pores of geologic materials contain both air and water). In the broadest sense, hydrology refers to study or the entire hydrologic cycle or any of its components. In that sense, hydrogeologists are also "hydrologists". However, in many cases, courses titled "hydrology" focus on surface water (streams, lakes etc.) and professional with the title "hydrologist" are often "surface-water hydrologists" rather than "hydrogeologists".

Describe what a typical day at work is for you.

As a university professor, a typical day during the academic year involves juggling my many duties, including preparing for and giving lectures, reviewing research progress with graduate or undergraduate students, attending faculty and committee meetings, writing or reviewing manuscripts and research proposals, and analyzing data or modeling results for current research projects. During the summer, and less frequently during the academic year as my schedule permits, I spend some time in the field installing and testing wells, making measurements of stream flow, or collecting water samples for laboratory analysis. Our field sites include some beautiful areas of pristine wetlands and springs as well as less attractive areas, such as former gasoline stations, where we are studying movement and degradation of contaminants.

Education in the field: What to Expect

Please tell us about your formal education.

In my undergraduate studies I completed a relatively "traditional" major in geology, supplemented by courses in environmental policy and environmental engineering. Particularly useful to my future graduate studies in hydrogeology were courses in calculus, physical chemistry, water chemistry, geochemistry, and environmental engineering. In graduate school my course work included hydrogeology courses offered through the School of Earth Sciences and a number of courses in Civil Engineering in the areas of groundwater and surface water hydrology, fluid mechanics, and environmental chemistry and microbiology.

What did you like and dislike about your education? What advice would you give to students who are just starting out?

As an undergraduate, I particularly enjoyed the field trips that complemented the classroom portion of courses. Although I was initially disappointed that I couldn't pursue a "combined science" major, I believe that I benefited in the long run from completing a major that offered me depth in a particular area. Of course I wish that I had had a chance to take a hydrogeology course as an undergraduate, but that was not available at my undergraduate institution. As a graduate student, I benefited not only from excellent instructors in courses, but also from the mentorship of my research advisors. There were relatively few formal opportunities for field training as part of the program at my graduate institution, but I was able to arrange field experiences through the contacts I made in graduate school.

For students just starting out, I would encourage exploration of a variety of areas to find the topics that excite you. Most scientific careers require a solid foundation in math, physics and chemistry, so take those courses early on if you can. Writing is as important as technical skills for most jobs, so be sure to take courses that give you a chance to write both long and short papers.

Are there other undergraduate majors besides geology that might lead to a career in hydrogeology?

At the University of Wisconsin - Madison, we have a double degree program in Geological Engineering that includes most of the core geology courses as well as a variety of courses in engineering mechanics, fluid mechanics, soil mechanics and rock mechanics. A geological engineering degree is an excellent choice for someone considering a career in hydrogeology, and employment options at the B.S. level are much greater than for geology majors. I have also supervised graduate students who had undergraduate training in mathematics, physics, hydrology, and environmental sciences. While all of these students needed some additional course work in geology during their graduate programs, they had the fundamental backgrounds in mathematics, chemistry, and physics that allowed them to pursue graduate work in hydrogeology.

You earned your Bachelor's degree at Yale University and went on to earn Master's and Doctorate degrees at Stanford University. Do you think that attending distinguished universities makes a difference when a graduate is trying to land a good job?

I have no doubt that having attended Yale and Stanford helped me to land interesting jobs, leading ultimately to my current position as a university professor. However, it was not the prestige of the institutions, but rather the faculty from those institutions who advised me, that made the difference. Several professors at Yale suggested summer internship opportunities and provided advice and letters of recommendation when I began to explore graduate school options. My graduate advisors at Stanford were instrumental in pointing me to academic opportunities. In the long run, doing well in courses, getting to know your professors, and seeking out research projects or internships is probably much more important than the school itself.

Do you have any suggestions for how students can land good internships or research assistantships in college?

As a first step, I would seek out any established programs at your college. Many institutions have programs designed to get undergraduates involved in research early in the college years. For example, the University of Wisconsin has a program called Undergraduate Research Scholars that links first year students with faculty mentors and projects as part of a year long course. Secondly, get to know professors in your courses - they are a great source of contacts and suggestions, and perhaps even opportunities on their projects. For summer or semester long internship and research experiences off-campus, an excellent resource is the listing of opportunities at federal agencies and national labs maintained by Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (click here to view the list).

Do you think it's helpful for geology students to study abroad?

I believe that study abroad is a useful experience for anyone because of the chance to broaden ones perspectives by experiencing another culture. However, finding advanced classes in geology that will meet requirements of a major at a US college can be challenging, both due to possible language barriers and to significant differences in the structure of the curriculum in other countries. Because of those challenges, perhaps the best options would be to study abroad between high school and college or during a summer. I know that at least one US college offers a geology field camp overseas, and that would be an excellent chance to travel while learning geology.

Based on your experiences and what you hear in the industry, please name five of the best institutions or programs for studying geology and/or hydrogeology.

Hydrogeology is usually considered a graduate specialty rather than an undergraduate degree area.

At the graduate level, highly regarded graduate programs include:

University of Waterloo (the premier program in North America)

Stanford University

University of Wisconsin - Madison

New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology

University of Nevada - Reno

At the undergraduate level, many of the best programs that provide general training in geology (but not necessarily hydrogeology) are at liberal arts colleges that focus on undergraduate education.

Five undergraduate programs that I would recommend are:

Carleton College (Minnesota)

Franklin and Marshall College (Pennsylvania)

Middlebury College (Vermont)

Smith College (Massachusetts)

College of William and Mary (Virginia)

Jobs in the Field: What to Expect

What types of positions do entry-level hydrogeologists usually get? What's the average salary for this level?

With a bachelor's degree, the majority of opportunities are with environmental consulting firms. Entry level positions typically involve field work to construct and sample monitoring wells at sites of contamination or new municipal wells. With a master's degree, positions in environmental consulting likely include a combination of field work, data analysis and modeling, plus development of proposals and preparation of reports. B.S. graduates may sometimes also find technician level positions with research organizations such as the U.S. Geological Survey. In general, M.S. graduates find expanded opportunities with more responsibility at the USGS or with state or federal agencies such as a state geological survey, a department of natural resources or the EPA. According to a publication of the American Geological Institute, salaries for college graduates with bachelor's degrees start at about $29,000 and starting salaries for geoscientists with master's degrees are about $38,000 and about $42,000 for Ph.Ds. These numbers seem fairly representative based on the experience of some of my recent M.S. graduates. However, salaries vary significantly by employers (consulting firms, academia, government) and by geographic location.

What can professionals with lots of experience do? What's the average salary for this position?

In environmental consulting, there are good opportunities for those with both B.S. and M.S. degrees plus a number of years of experience to move into senior technical and management positions. Accordign to the Bureau of Labor Statistics the median salary for "hydrologists" in 2002 was $56,530, with the middle 50 percent earning between $44,080 and $70,160, the lowest 10 percent less than $36,790, and the highest 10 percent more than $86,620. In academic or research institutions and at agencies such at the USGS, a PhD is generally a prerequisite for eventual promotion to senior professorial or scientific positions. Faculty and scientists are research institutions or government agencies have opportunities to define the questions they want to study and often supervise a number of students or technicians who participate in these studies. Salaries for senior positions are likely to be in the range of $80,000 to $100,000.

What are some of the best things a student can do to prepare for employment?

In addition to completing the core courses for an appropriate major in geology or hydrology, challenge yourself with courses that develop your quantitative reasoning and communication skills. Look for internships or summer jobs that provide you with practical training. Take advantage of student opportunities at professional meetings to make contacts with potential employers.

How was working in the field different than how you imagined it would be?

I did not initially plan for a career in academia, and am still (after 18 years) learning to balance the variety of demands of my job. I also didn't imagine the wide variety of topics I would have an opportunity to address, ranging from radioactive waste disposal, to ecosystem restoration, to the hydrogeology of seafloor hydrothermal vents.

The Industry

What special challenges will hydrogeologists need to address in the next decade?

Extending the available supplies of fresh water and managing to balance human and ecosystem needs for water are becoming increasingly important problems being tackled by hydrogeologists. This represents a significant shift from the emphasis on contaminants in the 1980s and 1990s.

What are some of the computer programs that hydrogeologists use?

The USGS code MODFLOW is widely used, through a variety of pre- and post-processing interfaces, for simulation of groundwater flow. There are a variety of codes that have been developed for simulating contaminant transport. Several of these that have been developed for use in conjunction with MODFLOW include MODPATH (also a USGS code) and MT3DMS (developed by a professor at the University of Alabama, Chunmiao Zheng). For geochemical and reactive transport modeling, the USGS also has developed a family of codes based on a model known as PHREEQC.

How has the spread of the Internet affected your profession?

As in so many fields, the internet has made it much easier to exchange information among practicing professionals in hydrogeology. The USGS has been particularly pro-active in making data and publications available on-line through their site. Many of the important journals now have publications available on-line and most of them use the internet to facilitate manuscript submission and review. Funding agencies also use the internet for proposal submission and review. Agendas and abstracts for professional meetings are commonly posted on the web.

Closing

Is there anything else you can tell us about yourself, your career, or the profession that would be interesting or helpful to others aspiring to enter and succeed in hydrogeology?

One of the aspects of my job that I enjoy is the opportunity to work collaboratively with those from other disciplines. In particular, problems of water management and ecosystem protection require the combined expertise of physical, biological and social scientists. I've learned a tremendous amount from colleagues from other fields, and that learning process is part of what keeps my job new and exciting.

Editor’s Note: If you have any questions for Dr. Bahr related to this interview, you may click here.